MACNA attendees Wayne Himel (l) and Keith Waguespack (r) showing off their Rod’s Food shirts and button collections.

It’s Day 3 and the end of the show. Our guests this time are a couple of up and coming reef aquarists talking about old people. We hope you enjoy the update and be sure to listen next Sunday when we do our MACNA wrap-up show. Much more to share than we’ve been able to include in our daily MiniCasts. Download the podcast here, or subscribe to our podcasts at iTunes. Also, follow us on Twitter at reefthreads.—Gary and Christine

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I finally had a chance to chat with Nathan Levine. Nathan is the founder of Current Labs and lead developer of Fishbit. Most of you have heard of Fishbit, the device that promises to be a sleek and simple way to monitor and control your aquarium. Aquarists have been asking a lot of questions about Fishbit; is it just like the Neptune System’s Apex? Will it monitor nitrate? Will it have probes that need calibrated? How can an aquarium controller be made fool proof and simple? After chatting with Nathan, I’ve learned more about how Fishbit functions, and the developer’s goal behind this new product. While Fishbit is reminiscent of products currently on the market, the simple and aesthetic approach Current Labs is taking makes it something surprisingly different.    Fishbit’s creation myth:It’s not a myth really, but to understand the design philosophy behind Fishbit, it’s valuable to know what led Nathan Levine to consider such a device. His Dad and he started keeping marine aquariums, but eventually Nathan moved off to college. He knew that technology existed that could monitor their tanks while he was away, but it was far beyond his father’s tech comfort zone. Without Nathan at home to take care of the tanks, his hobby sort of fell apart and needed placed on hold. Years later when Nathan re-entered the hobby, a lot had changed. Controller technology had grown, but was still too complicated for someone like his father or mother to implement. That’s when he set out to design Fishbit. The expressed goal of Fishbit is to be an aquarium controller so simple to use, that every aquarist can implement one and reap the benefits of a fully connected aquarium. Nathan’s personal goal is to ship a product that his father or mother could set-up and use, which would remove a lot of the confusion that surrounds keeping a perfectly stable marine aquarium. What Fishbit isn’t:Fisbit isn’t a Neptune System’s Apex. I think a Mac vs. PC comparison works well here. Macs are very good systems for someone who wants an easy to use system with a simple graphic operating system. PCs can be simple to use, but they also allow technical users to pop the hood easily and pull all kinds of open source tricks. In this comparison the PC is the Apex, something that really is targeted to both technical users and those who want a basic level of control.… More:

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Renown fish breeder Karen Brittain, who made waves last year revealing a slew of captive bred Genicanthus personatus at MACNA 2014, recently had a larval run with Apolemichthys arcuatus, the Bandit angelfish. Considering A. arcuatus is my favorite fish, I was watching the fruits of her labor anxiously waiting for them to settle. While there were a couple hiccups as with any larval run, four perfect little babies went through metamorphosis and have been moved to their grow out tank. Another fantastic achievement for Karen! Anyone who’s reared marine fishes can attest that it’s an incredibly daunting task. Suffice to say that when Thanksgiving or Christmas dinner is over, you’re off to feed your microscopic babies to keep them thriving. Fishes don’t care for holidays or vacations. Clownfishes, Bangaii Cardinals and the like might as well be cichlids of the marine world. Pomacanthidae is a whole ‘nother realm of difficulty and has been Karen’s main focus. Here’s a sequence of their growth, along with some amazing video footage. You can keep up to date with Karen’s breeding projects on her blog. Once again congratulations Karen, keep up the great work! 

Day 13

Day 33

Day 40

   … More:

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Reef display in the CoralVue boothLooking back over the weekend Caribbean Chris and I just spent at MACNA 2015 in Washington, DC, it’s dizzying trying to recollect all that we saw and learned and all the wonderful people we met. For us, there’s just something energizing about MACNA. We always leave the event with our batteries recharged and all sorts of creative ideas for enhancing our content and offerings here at Saltwater Smarts. First off, we’d like to extend salty kudos to the Marine Aquarium Societies of North America (MASNA) and the Washington, DC Area Marine Aquarist Society (WAMAS) for organizing MACNA 2015 and keeping it humming along so smoothly throughout. I can only imagine the level of effort and aggravation it takes to pull together such a massive event. I don’t know what the actual attendance number turned out to be, but the Saturday-night banquet alone drew some 2,300 people!Thousands of salties attended the Saturday night banquet One of the many elements that set MACNA apart from other industry events is the powerful educational component.

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Reef display in the CoralVue boothLooking back over the weekend Caribbean Chris and I just spent at MACNA 2015 in Washington, DC, it’s dizzying trying to recollect all that we saw and learned and all the wonderful people we met. For us, there’s just something energizing about MACNA. We always leave the event with our batteries recharged and all sorts of creative ideas for enhancing our content and offerings here at Saltwater Smarts. First off, we’d like to extend salty kudos to the Marine Aquarium Societies of North America (MASNA) and the Washington, DC Area Marine Aquarist Society (WAMAS) for organizing MACNA 2015 and keeping it humming along so smoothly throughout. I can only imagine the level of effort and aggravation it takes to pull together such a massive event. I don’t know what the actual attendance number turned out to be, but the Saturday-night banquet alone drew some 2,300 people!Thousands of salties attended the Saturday night banquet One of the many elements that set MACNA apart from other industry events is the powerful educational component.

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Throughout my reefing career one of my favorite pastimes [besides diving] is to peruse through the never ending pictures of reefs in nature. It’s hard to believe where some of our favorite corals grow, many times in vastly different environments than what we accomplish within our glass boxes. Over the past decade we’ve seen a surge in not only aquaculture of coral, but mariculture as well. While some people interchange the two they specify very different things to me: mariculture designates coral farmed in the ocean; aquaculture denotes coral farmed in captivity. With social media being such an easy way to connect these days, coral farmers of all types can share their work quickly. Recently I was talking with Bali coral farmer Endang Nilsari regarding some maricultured Euphyllia sp. they’re working with. Endang grows all types of corals in the ocean: Acropora, Acanthastrea, Blastomussa, Echinophyllia, Euphyllia and Lobophyllia to name a few genera. Since I have a soft spot for Euphyllia sp., these pictures of lovely mini-colonies riding the current on a metal rack in the ocean made me whimper. It came as a surprise to me that the Euphyllia pictured is grown in one of their “low water farms” at a mere 2 meters (~6-7 feet)! After mentioning that that seemed like a ton of light for this genus, Endang noted that the “special metallic” colors were grown on a “deep farm” at 8-10 meters (~26-33 feet). I’ve noted in captivity that most Euphyllia do best under simple moderate lighting, which to me is a couple overdriven blue T5 bulbs, or about halfway up in most reefers aquaria. 

Euphyllia ancora

Fields of Euphyllia ancora

Euphyllia glabrescens

Euphyllia glabrescens

Note the massive “Favia” hanging out beneath the racks.

 We’ll be taking a look at some other maricultured corals in nature here soon, stay tuned!… More:

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Occasionally a seahorse hobbyist runs into a situation where a freshwater (FW) dip is indicated. A FW Dip can be used as both a therapeutic and a diagnostic tool. As a therapeutic tool it can help rid the seahorse of ectoparasites on the body, in the oral cavity, as well as in the gills. As a diagnostic tool, observation during the dip will give you a good idea if there is a parasitic load or not. It can also be done prophylactically on new arrivals from suspect sources, on wild caught (WC) specimens or when a tank mate has had known parasitic load. We have been doing FW Dips for over 11 years. We have found that every species we have encountered has handled FW Dips just fine

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Most reefs.com readers will be aware that as far as Caribbean corals go, none are considered more at risk of extinction than Acropora cervicornis and Acropora palmata. Researchers from the University of Puerto Rico are now concerned, based on new population demographic data, that A. cervicornis will become “quasi-extinct” in Puerto Rico in less than two decades. 

Staghorn coral (A. cervicornis) coral ‘setting’ sperm egg bundles visible as peach colored balls emerging from the coral polyps in prepation of spawning. Photo used with permission of photographer Rich Ross.

  Alex E. Mercado-Molina and colleagues published the results of a new population growth study based in Puerto Rico in the journal Coral Reefs this months, and the results are not optimistic. As a quick refresher: A. cervicornis has already experienced a >95% decline in abundance since the 1970’s, and is protected under the US Endangered Species Act as a threatened species. One straightforward approach to a loss of abundance is to protect habitats where the species still exists, and in concert to attempt population expansion with restoration efforts. The problem is, until now, no one has undertaken a rigorous study of how demographics contribute to the growth of the population. In other words, what are the critical demographic characteristics that make the largest contributions to population growth? The researchers tagged 150 extant A. cervicornis colonies at depths of 3-5 m, at two different sites. Survival, growth, and fragmentation were all monitored during two census periods, from 2011 to 2012 and from 2012 to 2013. A matrix model was developed and informed with observational data from the census periods. This model would provide relative probabilities of stasis or change in each demographic feature of the colonies and population. An aside: during the census periods, fragmentation of the tagged colonies themselves was rare (7-10% of colonies, with a total of 51 fragments produced). Not a single colony fragment from either outside or inside the survey area was observed to have established itself during the census periods. As if that wasn’t enough, no sexual recruitment in the survey areas was observed whatsoever. Overall colony survivorship was close to 90%, but, still, the population growth was lower than equilibrium. In other words, the A. cervicornis population studied was disappearing. The model probabilities generated with the intention of how out planted colonies used for restoration purposes would fare under the current environmental regime came to a critical conclusion: The viability model produced a forecast quasi-extinction time frame of 16 years (or less) for the study sites.… More:

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2015 has been quite the year for captive-bred fishes! We have seen such a variety of new things, as well as a great stride of species firsts! ORA has done it again with a brand new goby species! The Transparent Cave Goby (Fusigobius pallidus) is also known as the Pale Sand Goby, and is native to the reefs of the Maldives and Fiji.  This translucent goby has flairs of orange spots scattered about with a bit of blue tinge on its fins. And it wouldn’t be a translucent fish without its organs showing through! The Transparent Cave Goby spends most of its time among rock and rubble hunting for crustaceans. Thankfully, ORA has eliminated that part for you! They state that these gobies readily consume pellets as well as frozen foods. Like most gobies, pallidus is a fairly peaceful tankmate, but may become hostile to conspecifics. This may inhibit how many you add to your tank. ORA recommends keeping one specimen per square foot. These neat gobies max out around 3″, and they are not shy! They can be seen hanging onto your rocks and coral and they are very active during feeding time. This is not a goby that will hide 90% of the time. The perfect companion for any tank. If you’re lucky, pallidus may begin to spawn in your tank. Like most species of goby, they spawn benthically. They will spawn under a rock or cave;  laying their eggs on the ceiling of an object.   This marks the third new fish out from ORA this year and their 12th goby species. This is great news! I applaud ORA for their outstanding work and hope they continue to produce more species firsts. Check out this link to see more captive bred gobies from ORA. Want to know more about how you can breed gobies? Look out this week for my goby edition of “Tips for Beginner Breeders”.… More:

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A new system for monitoring fish health is going to be used for the first time in an aquarium. The monitoring system will debut at England’s Blue Planet Aquarium. The system was developed by Lynne Sneddon, an expert who is known for discovering that fish can feel pain. Dr. Sneddon, and her team at the University of Liverpool, have created a system, based on three years of dedicated study, that is not invasive and yet manages to monitor the health of the fish. The system picks out those fish who are not swimming in a normal, healthy fish pattern. Cameras are used to identify the patterns of healthy fish. When an abnormal pattern is detected by the camera, the system alerts aquarium staff. The staff can then follow up on the welfare of the fish. Blue Planet Aquarium curator David Wolfenden, who invited Dr Sneddon to perform the trial of the monitor at the aquarium, said: “Blue Planet Aquarium houses some 4,000 fish species and we are always looking at ways to employ the latest state of the art techniques in animal health.This monitor has the potential to revolutionise the care of aquatic life in captive environments worldwide and it will be fascinating to the see the results of its first trial in a public aquarium.” The monitor trial will begin at the aquarium tomorrow, September 12, 2015. MORE… More:

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Striated, or hairy, frogfish (Antennarius striatus)Marine aquarists who are drawn to cryptic species with unusual morphology rather than bright colors might want to give the striated frogfish (Antennarius striatus) a second look. Actually, depending on the system it’s kept in, it may be necessary to give it a second (or third or fourth) look, as this angler is truly a master of camouflage. Physical traitsLike most antennariids, A. striatus is somewhat monstrous—albeit fascinating—in appearance, having a globular body that is cleverly obscured with myriad protrusions and frilly appendages. Its modified pectoral fins look almost like little legs, which is pretty cool (but also kind of creepy). Striated frogfish commonly exhibit brown and tan tiger striping, but they can modify their coloration to blend in with different surroundings. The maximum recorded size for this species is between 8 and 9 inches, though most specimens aren’t apt to get quite that large

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Over the past 8 years, the Marine Aquarium Societies of North America (MASNA) has provided $40,000 in funding for undergraduate and graduate college students to help continue their degrees in the marine science discipline.  In the past 8 years, The MASNA Scholarship Program has grown to over 250 applicants from North America and abroad. It has fast become a very competitive and esteemed award. This year, with sponsorships from Doctors Foster and Smith LiveAquaria.com, Ecotech Marine, and Seachem, MASNA was able to award both a $4,000 undergraduate student scholarship and a $4,000 graduate student scholarship, and provide all expense paid trips for both winners to MACNA 2015 in Washington, D.C. MASNA is proud to name Elizabeth Marchio and Tim Lyons the 2015 – 2016 MASNA Student Scholarship recipients, and wish them all the best in their future endeavors. The 2015-2016 MASNA Undergraduate Student Scholarship winner, Tim Lyons, is a full time Marine Science undergraduate student at the University of Florida. Tim maintains a high end zoanthid and mushroom dominated nano-reef. He is currently interested in marine ornamental aquaculture and larval microfeeds, and is interested in the potential of tunicates for feed production. Tim is designing an integrated hobbyist size culture system for use under an aquarium to make foods readily available to tank owners and decrease copepod-eating fish mortality. He cultures weekly batches of phytoplankton and harpacticoid copepods for local club members and aquarium shops, with plans to brand and expand into a small business. Tim is an avid diver, and loves to collect marine ornamentals. Over the semester he will be earning his AAUS Scientific Diver certification through the University of Florida.  Tim hopes to pursue a Master’s degree in invertebrate aquaculture. The 2015-2016 MASNA Graduate Student Scholarship winner, Elizabeth Marchio, is a Ph.D. student in “Science as leisure” at Texas A&M University. Currently, Elizabeth keeps a 100 gallon tub tank. Her research, which she has named it the study of “Science as Leisure”, explores how people use their leisure time to participate in hobbies, such as keeping marine aquaria, where they concurrently learn science and conservation issues. Elizabeth pursues the answers of many hobbyist questions. Can the hobby promote a high standard of living? Can we streamline the catch-to-aquarium process to promote better wages to collectors and more sustainably collected animals? She is interested in looking closely at the complex issues surrounding the ornamental fish trade and the ESA.… More:

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Last week we took a look at some wonderful maricultured mini-colonies of various Euphyllia species. Today we get a sneak peak into the most popular maricultured genus, Acropora. To produce the most colorful specimens of maricultured Acropora divers take fragments of wild colonies, place them in various farms, and see which one’s do best at particular depths and currents. Similar to aquaculture in captivity, once a coral has proven to color up well and grow at an acceptable pace the coral is fragmented again and eventually sold. Lately many reefers have been intrigued by the wonderful smooth skinned “deepwater” Acropora, myself included. They come in a dizzying array of colors, although predominantly various shades of green/yellow.Their growth patterns are unlike any other Acropora making them desirable even to the most jaded aquarist. However, while they might prefer more indirect light than some of the super high light loving Acros, they’re certainly not grown in “deepwater”. Just like the “deepwater” zoanthid craze the term is a marketing technique. These corals are grown in depths ranging from 5-8 meters (~16-26 feet) alongside other Acropora species. 

Note the wild coral growing in the background of this picture.

This smooth skinned Acro would likely be labeled “deepwater”.

This smooth skinned Acro would likely be labeled “deepwater”.

  For best success reefers should cut the bases off of these corals when they’re received. This helps prevent unwanted algae and coral pests from making their way into a system. Make sure to dip thoroughly and slowly acclimate them to your lighting system. Many times maricultured colonies are kept under artificial lighting for a short period of time prior to export which helps them color up, and allows the farmer time to inspect the animals health. This is generally not sufficient time for the coral to fully adapt to captive conditions so some TLC on your end will go a long way with these beautiful animals.… More:

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A new study reveals that the desert dwelling Pupfish can hold its breath for up to five hours. Researchers this week at the American Physiological Society’s Experimental Biology Meeting said the ability to hold its breath is an adaption which allows the fish to survive in ever changing environmental conditions. Researchers at the University of Nevada wanted to see how the critically endangered pupfish has been able to survive serious climate changes. The cool lakes they once thrived in have now reached temperatures up to almost 100 degrees Fahrenheit.  Researchers attribute the fish’s success to physiological plasticity, or essentially doing whatever it takes to adapt to environmental changes. The Desert Pupfish stops breathing for up to five hours at a time, thereby breaking down inhaled oxygen. This process does not come without its risks, and the process can lead to excess production of free radicals. The Pupfish randomly alternate between oxygen-based, or aerobic, respiration and oxygen-free, or anaerobic, respiration. The fish generate and breakdown ethanol to get energy without using any oxygen. “Sometimes organisms have to take the lesser of two evils, but it doesn’t necessarily mean this alternative is a great option,” Frank Van Breukelen from the University of Nevada says. “We think this process is really tough on the fish.” It is possible that this process also contributes to the pupfish’s shorter life span. MORE… More:

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Gary and Christine recording “in the wild” at MACNA 2015.

We’re back from Washington DC and it’s time for our MACNA wrap-up show. Fire up your ear buds and hear what we saw and did at the annual marine-aquarium event. Also, make your plans to attend in Sand Diego next September. Download the podcast here, or subscribe to our podcasts at iTunes. Also, follow us on Twitter at reefthreads.—Gary and Christine

Sponsor: Rod’s Food
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The oceans are full of creatures capable of killing us; one of the more surprising marine menaces is a group of popular aquarium corals known variably as “button polyps”, “palys” and “zoas”. Rather than biting us in half or injecting us with some venomous barb, these nefarious creatures secrete a highly lethal chemical called palytoxin. This is information which is oftentimes not related properly to new aquarists, whether purposefully or through sheer ignorance or negligence on the part of retailers. Undoubtedly, there are many in this hobby who would avoid purchasing such a dangerous organism were they to be made aware of the risks. There are also likely some reading this right now who are looking at the zoas in their tank with a leery eye and pondering what to do. It is important to understand that palytoxin is not present in every species of “zoa”. I have heard many knowledgeable aquarists incorrectly state that all “zoanthids” contain it and are therefore dangerous, which is not accurate whatsoever. Such blanket statements show a lack of expertise in these corals and the extensive research recently published on them. One such study (Deeds et al 2011) focused on aquarium specimens and found that there is likely a single lineage of button polyps which is truly dangerous to the general aquarium community. This makes proper identification of the utmost importance, so lets jump into the esoterica of invertebrate taxonomy and attempt at last to correctly identify these deadly corals and their harmless relatives. 

Common aquarium “zoas”: Zoanthus sansibaricus, kuroshio & gigantus. Note the white pots of the latter.

 First and foremost, if your button polyps are a bright and colorful red or yellow or orange or pink, you are not in any danger. The vast majority of such specimens which enter the trade are either Zoanthus vietnamensis or Zoanthus sansibaricus. The abundant red and green zoas exported from Vietnam are the latter, and these are apparently lacking in palytoxin at any detectable level. The relatively common pink zoas are likely to be Zoanthus kuroshio, which is likewise a safe addition to your reef tank. The species most commonly referred to as “palys” in the aquarium trade are actually Zoanthus gigantus, which, if the general trend holds, can be presumed to be safe (though confirmation is needed). These are a bit larger than the previous species and come in a variety of unique and popular color patterns.… More:

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These rarely seen phenotypes are of uncertain identification. That on the left is likely a rare green morph of P. heliodiscus, those on the right appear to be P. cf toxica. Notice the difference in tentacle length.

 Continued from Part 1… Aside from the drab brown specimens which are most frequently encountered, there may be a couple of attractive phenotypes of these toxic species being fragged and traded under the names like “Purple Death Paly” and “Nuclear Green Paly”. A definitive identification of these and other similar colorful, short-tentacled morphs awaits morphological and genetic study, but caution is warranted until these are proven safe (especially for those doing the fragging!). 

Various patterns in P. grandis. This blotchy, irregular patterning is distinctive for the species.

 Another species which could cause confusion is the rather distinctive Atlantic endemic Palythoa grandis. As the name implies, these are some of the largest button polyps, reaching upwards of 25mm in disc diameter. The color patterns are fairly diagnostic, showing an unusual mottling not common in the Pacific species. The tentacles of grandis are miniscule for such a large polyp, and there are no capitulary ridges. In large polyps, the oral disc is often held in a characteristically convoluted shape. These are uncommonly seen and only available from Caribbean collectors, with colonies typically having few individual polyps. It is unknown if this species contains palytoxin—P. grandis has at times been placed near to heliodiscus in genetic studies, so it is certainly plausible that this may be a dangerous species. 

Two species of Neozoanthus, which resemble a Palythoa writ small. From Reimer et al 2012

 One final species worth mentioning is a relative of the true “zoas” which is placed in its own genus, Neozoanthus. They appear superficially quite similar to Palythoa in possessing thin, tapering tentacles and primarily brown colors, but their genetics and inability to incorporate sand into their tissues confirms their placement within Zoanthidae. They are also far smaller than any Palythoa species, even smaller than most Zoanthus. These are unlikely to ever be encountered for sale as large colonies, and even less likely to be offered with a correct identification, but I have certainly seen specimens imported, most often appearing alongside more “desirable” corals. Presumably, these are lacking in palytoxin. Aside from Palythoa heliodiscus/cf toxica, palytoxin is known from a common dinoflagellate (Ostreopsis) and a cyanobacterium (Trichodesmium), each with a slightly different structure to the molecule and varying toxicity.… More:

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This is pretty awesome. The Crowns Of Thorns Starfish Robot (COTSBot)is a submarine with a purpose: it hunts down crown of thorns starfish and gives them a lethal injection. The COTSBot “is designed to operate without a tether, and execute missions with minimal human interaction once deployed.” Once the robot is ready to go, it can hunt Australia’s great barrier reefs for up to six hours at a time. It uses cameras and algorithms to identify the crown of thorn starfish. Once it has targeted its prey, it hovers over the robot long enough to lower a needle and pump poison into the starfish. The vision system is 99% accurate, and the poison, harmless to other sea creatures, causes “discolored and necrotic skin, ulcerations, loss of body turgor, accumulation of colorless mucus, loss of spines and large, open sores that expose the internal organs,” according to researchers at James Cook University. Previously, this work was done by human divers. With the development of the COTSBot, this process is now entirely more efficient. This is great news considering the major problem that the Crown of Thorns Starfish poses on Australia’s reefs. The COTSBot may be just whats needed to keep up with the starfish’s rapid reproduction. MORE… More:

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Skimmer maintenance and light bulb or tube replacement are both important aspects of marine aquarium maintenanceKeeping a marine aquarium healthy and thriving requires a significant level of maintenance. For the most part, we hobbyists are pretty good at tackling chores in a timely manner, but in some cases we’re a little more prone to procrastination—usually in situations where “out of sight means out of mind.” Here are 5 critical marine aquarium maintenance chores that are all too easily overlooked but can have a dramatic impact on the health of your livestock, the functional life of your equipment, and/or the enjoyment you derive from your system:1. Cleaning the neck of your protein skimmer No one likes to touch that grimy, slimy, stinky coating that accumulates around the neck of a protein skimmer, but don’t postpone this important task! That nasty buildup of gunk is not only unsightly, but it also greatly impedes your skimmer’s foam production, which, in turn, greatly reduces the collection of skimmate. Simply wiping the neck clean as often as needed—at the very least, once a week—is the best thing you can do to keep your skimmer functioning at peak efficiency. 2. Cleaning pumps and powerheads Pumps and powerheads are essential elements of a marine aquarium’s “circulatory system” that quietly (or sometimes not so quietly) go about the business of creating currents and moving water wherever it’s needed. But over time, these pumps can become clogged with coralline algae, sponges, vermetid snails, etc

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Palythoa grandisMany of us are inspired to keep marine life for its exotic beauty or interesting behavior. But if we’re being perfectly honest, we have to admit there’s also something intriguing about keeping—and displaying to our friends and family—marine organisms that have dangerous or potentially deadly defense mechanisms, such as venomous spines, potent toxins, or razor-sharp teeth. For those hobbyists who like to flirt with danger, the marine aquarium trade certainly offers its share of prickly and poisonous characters—from venomous fishes to deadly cephalopods to noxious sessile invertebrates. There are even organisms we can buy that offer stunning beauty and potency in equal measure.Among these best-of-both-worlds critters are many of the zoanthids we’re so fond of keeping in our reef systems. These polyps (most of the ones we keep being from the Zoanthus and Palythoa genera) have much to recommend them, being very hardy and often stunningly beautiful. But some of them also contain a potent neurotoxin, called palytoxin, in their tissues and mucus that can make people very sick or even cause death if they’re not handled properly. Of course, blithely mentioning that certain popular zoanthids have the potential to sicken or kill people raises a whole host of questions that demand prompt, thorough answers. Among them: What is the nature of palytoxin

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